Abdullah HosseiniEskandian; gorbanali karimzadeh garamaleki; Abbas Abbaszadeh
Volume 11, Issue 2 , December 2023, Pages 1-27
Abstract
The historical aspect of the problem of evil and the questions that it creates about the Existence of God and His Absolute Attributes, caused theodices and defenses to be explained in Christian theology in order to defend the doctrine of theism. Such an issue has caused wide-ranging debates about it ...
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The historical aspect of the problem of evil and the questions that it creates about the Existence of God and His Absolute Attributes, caused theodices and defenses to be explained in Christian theology in order to defend the doctrine of theism. Such an issue has caused wide-ranging debates about it from the first centuries of AD to the present day. Saint Augustine (354-430 AD), who is one of the most prominent Christian thinkers and had a great influence on Christian theology, made a tremendous effort in his works to explain the problem of evil and provide solutions to justify it. What is clear from Augustine's thoughts and opinions about evil is that he considers evil in a negative sense, not a positive one, and considers evil to be the misuse of things and objects that are intrinsically good. In this article, an attempt is made to investigate and analyze Augustine's theodicy and finally criticize it based on the principles of Shia theology.MethodologyIn this article, with a descriptive-analytical method and a critical approach, an attempt is made to investigate and analyze Augustine's theodicy and criticize it based on Shia theological principles.FindingsThe problem of evil was an influential and important issue in Augustine's life and was the main cause of some of the evolutions that occurred in his life. Therefore, he has made major and comprehensive discussions about the problem of evil in his works. Augustine's theodicy is influenced by the principles that Augustine believed in and solved the problem of evil based on them. These principles are influenced by Christian beliefs, and Augustine explained and solved the problem of evil based on them. From Augustine's point of view, God did not create and does not create any evil, and it is man who causes evil by misusing and abusing his will. Augustine has stated solutions such as “achieving good through evil”, “few evil and abundance of good”, “necessity of the evil for the system of creation” and “evil is relative” to justify the problem of evil (Copleston, 2009, vol. 2: p.107). The theodicy of Augustine sees God's relationship with creatures and the universe in the form of impersonal relationships (Sefidkhosh and Moradi, 2015: p. 77). Therefore, man was created as a part of a hierarchy of forms of existence that would be incomplete without Him, and man has absolute reliance on the Absolute Goodness of God and His Grace. According to the theodicy of Augustine, it is basically impossible to get rid of evil and obtain good affairs without the help of the Divine Will and the granting of grace from Him. Augustine considers evil to be non-existent and moral evil also comes from human will and action that abuses his will.Discussion and ConclusionThe principle of defending the existence of God and His Absolute Attributes, defending the best system of creation, free will, fall of man, original sin and Divine Grace are among the principles based on which Saint Augustine explained and solved the problem of evil. Augustine believes in his theodicy that everything that is and exists is good and negation is evil because it does not benefit from existence. The theodicy of Augustine sees God's relationship with creatures and the universe in the form of impersonal relationships (Augustine, 2006: p.103). Augustine considers evil to be not essential and inherent, but an accident affair that lacks essence and substance and means the lack of perfection in an object. He believes that the minimal existence of evil is accepted and its negation is expressed by considering its minimal aspect (Augustine, 2012: p. 120). Augustine considers evil to be non-existent, which is why it does not deserve the existence of a cause; because the first and most important condition for the existence of an object is to have a cause (Brown, 2000: p.73). According to Augustine, any object or phenomenon that has stages of perfection and is useful is good, and if an object lacks stages of perfection, it cannot be called good anymore, but it is an evil that has no cause, and since it has no cause, it does not exist, and as a result, it is a non-existent affair. Augustine divides evil into moral and natural evil, and considers moral evil as human sin and natural evil as the punishment that a person must taste natural evil because of committing moral evil (De Paulo, 2006: p.34). Finally, it should be acknowledged that Augustine in his theodicy, despite the many efforts he had in solving the problem of evil, but this theodicy based on the approach of Shia theology faces criticisms such as “the lack of effect of original sin in committing moral evil”, “incorrect explanation of the relationship between evil and the material world”, “incorrect explanation of the agent of the realization of natural evil” and etc., which makes the acceptance and acceptability of his theodicy difficult.
Maryam Aqamohammadreza; Mohammad Javad Rezaeirah; Hamidreza Ayatollahy
Volume 11, Issue 2 , December 2023, Pages 29-55
Abstract
One of the main topics of the philosophy of religion is the effectiveness of God and the manner of divine action in the world. Self-limiting thinking, which considers traditional philosophy and modern philosophy to be ineffective in responding to issues related to divine agency and God's relationship ...
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One of the main topics of the philosophy of religion is the effectiveness of God and the manner of divine action in the world. Self-limiting thinking, which considers traditional philosophy and modern philosophy to be ineffective in responding to issues related to divine agency and God's relationship with the world, tries to present new theologies according to its philosophical foundations so that they can solve philosophical and theological issues in the field of divine agency. to solve and answer the theological problems in this field by providing new definitions of former concepts. The question of this article is whether there is such an internal consistency in the thought system of process theology that can maintain the supremacy of God and the necessity and simplicity while establishing a mutual and two-way relationship between God and the world and solving philosophical and theological problems in the field of divine agency. Don't damage his essence? Since process theologians have spoken the most and most basic words in the field of self-determination thinking, we will first examine the theological perspective of process theologians and believers in God's believers self-limitation in the field of divine agency. In order to answer the philosophical and theological issues in this matter, in the analysis of divine agency in the world system, they consider change better than stability and consider their philosophy to be based on transformation and mutual and organic movement of all beings. Beings having two main and secondary dimensions, while having mutual relations with each other, they maintain their individuality and have creativity. Therefore, God, as one of the beings of this world who is across other beings, is variable in his subordinate nature, and the relationship of influence and influence between God and the beings of the world leads to the dissolution of God in the world. Now, in order to maintain the effectiveness and creativity and self-creation of other beings along with divine agency, previous knowledge and divine absolute power have been negated, and God is not the creator of beings, but only has creativity. By examining and analyzing this thought, we find out that in addition to the existence of internal inconsistency in the view of this school, Mulla Sadra, based on his philosophical principles, considers the theory of process theologians in the field of divine agency to be contrary to the inherent obligation and simplicity of God's essence, and considers the agent to be a manifestation, while preserving the excellence of the divine essence, proves his effectiveness in all dimensions of beings, and provides the field to respond to theological problems in the field of divine effectiveness.Considering that this article deals with the divine agency from Sadra's point of view with the perspective of dynamic theology, an attempt is made to first describe the perspective of process theology and its intellectual foundations by using the descriptive-analytical method, and then by examining the internal inconsistencies of this thinking, this theory should be explained and criticized in the system of Sadra's philosophy, and finally, Sadra's point of view should be examined in the discussion of divine agency. Based on the investigations, despite the many researches and articles that have been conducted on the subject of divine agency from Mulla Sadra's point of view, an independent work that has reread Sadra's manifest agency with regard to the theory of self-limitation in process theology and the problems raised in it from an internal point of view it was not found. The author's efforts to search for background on the subject of comparing process theology with Mulla Sadra's point of view led to the following findings:1- The book "Comparative research in the ontology and epistemology of Mulla Sadra and Whitehead" written by Mr. Mahdi Dehbashi in this book, the basics of ontology and epistemology are examined from the point of view of Whitehead as one of the most prominent thinkers of process philosophy and Mulla Sadra, the similarities and differences of this point of view are pointed out, and some of process theological theories are criticized. However, this book is different from the purpose of this research, which is to examine divine agency from the perspective of process theologians and criticize it based on internal consistency and Sadra's principles and the manner of agency in manifestation.2- Thesis entitled "The Problem of Divine agency in Mulla Sadra, Descartes and David Griffin" written by Mrs. Zainab Akhtari. In this research, Griffin's point of view as one of the leading figures of process theology and Mulla Sadra in the field of divine agency is examined. Although in this research, the discussion of divine agency is discussed from the point of view of these three thinkers and their differences and similarities, but in this research, after examining the foundations of process philosophy thinking and Mulla Sadra in the discussion of divine agency, we try to identify the weaknesses of process theology based on to criticize the basics of Sadra's thinking.3- Dissertation "Charles Hartshorne's process theological theory with the perspective of transcendental wisdom" written by Mr. Adham Meshmir in this thesis, although the viewpoint of one of the thinkers of process theology is examined, the issue of divine agency is not specifically investigated. In addition, it has not investigated Sadra's point of view in the discussion of divine agency and its confrontation with the problems ahead from his point of view; Rather, most of the views of the thinkers of transcendental wisdom, including Allameh Tabatabai and Shahid Motahari, have been examined.4- Dissertation "Examining the perspective of process theology according to Hartshorne's account of God's relationship with the world from the perspective of transcendental wisdom" written by Ms. Zainab Akhtari in this research, Hartshorne's view of process theologians and his intellectual foundations on the issue of God's relationship with the world have been examined, and then some of their views have been criticized based on the view of transcendental wisdom. Although in this research, an attempt has been made to criticize the divine intellectual principles of process scholars based on the principles of transcendental wisdom, but in my research, the issue of divine agency and its intellectual foundations has been presented and criticized in a more comprehensive manner from the perspective of process thinkers, and Sadra's answer in the discussion of effectiveness, it is explained in detail based on the effectiveness of manifestation. Finally, according to the searches, no research with the title, method and purpose of this research was found.
somayeh khademi; zeynab shariatnia
Volume 11, Issue 2 , December 2023, Pages 57-81
Abstract
Sleep and dreams are among the salient concepts in religious-mystical studies and psychology that religious scholars, Muslim mystics, and psychologists have paid particular attention to and expressed thoughtful opinions. In the thought of mystics, one of the ways that a person can communicate with the ...
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Sleep and dreams are among the salient concepts in religious-mystical studies and psychology that religious scholars, Muslim mystics, and psychologists have paid particular attention to and expressed thoughtful opinions. In the thought of mystics, one of the ways that a person can communicate with the unseen world is the world of dreams, in which the meanings of the unseen world take on sensual ecstasy and express particular concepts and themes. One of the mystics who paid distinct attention to the issue of dreams in his works is Mohi Al-Din Ibn Arabi (1240-1165 AD). The issue of dreams in Ibn Arabi's intellectual-mystical system has an inseparable association with uncovering, intuition, and spiritual experiences. He has dedicated the Yousefi and Ishaq chapters of Fosus Al-Hikam and a large part of the Meccan conquests, including chapters 99 and 180, to this issue. He considers the dream language to be symbolic and believes that the science of interpretation helps elicit the true meaning of what has been witnessed in a dream.On the other hand, dreams have been the focus of psychologists and psychoanalysts in psychology because they are related to the human psyche and are the source of many human behaviors. Erich Fromm (1900-1980), a German-American psychoanalyst, sociologist, and renowned social psychologist of the Frankfurt school (Miri768,9 2014: 10), in his valuable work entitled “The Forgotten Language,” examined dreams thoroughly using previous findings and experiences on psych activities. According to his belief, dreams rooted in human thoughts and ideas are entirely authentic and meaningful and express the thoughts, interests, and desires of people. Erich Fromm considers the language of dreams to be a symbolic language that needs interpretation. Understanding the symbolic language is necessary for anyone who wants to know himself, and if he does not understand this language, he will miss the various points in sleeping. Therefore, the art of dream interpretation task is to understand the motivations of human behavior (natural and unnatural) and to distinguish the reasonable and higher parts of the dream from the unreasonable parts.Given the importance of the dream issue in the thoughts of mystics and psychologists, the researchers of the present paper are to investigate the supra-natural viewpoints of Ibn Arabi and the natural approach of Erich Formm based on comparative analysis and according to the librarian evidence with a fresh view. So far, some research has been written about sleep and dreams. Among them is "Sleep and Dream from Ibn Arabi's Point of View" written by Abdolreza Mazaheri, which discussed topics such as dreams, the world of absolute and binding examples, spiritual hermeneutics and interpretation, and imagination from Ibn Arabi's viewpoint. Vahidah Haddad and Mohammad Bidhandi, in the article "The Nature of Sleep and Dreams from the Point of View of Farabi, Suhrawardi, and Ibn Arabi," have compared the views of Suhrawardi, Farabi, and Ibn Arabi about dreams. Ali Arshad Riahi and Fatemeh Zare, in a paper entitled “Comparison Study on Dream in the View of Ibn Arabi and Mula Sadra" explained their comparable and discrepant views upon dreams. Meanwhile, no study has focused on comparing Ibn Arabi and Erich Formm concerning the issue of dreams and their language. Therefore, this article tries to answer critical questions in this regard. Among these questions are: What is the origin of sleep and dreams in humans? What are the types of sleep and dreams? What is the language of sleep and dreams? Should dreams be interpreted, and if they are interpretable, who should do it?The research findings indicate that Ibn Arabi and Erich Forumm work on the issue from a specific aspect.The similarities between Ibn Arabi's and Eric Fromm's views on dreaming reflect broader trends in the history of psychology and religious studies, each emphasizing the importance of self-knowledge and personal growth. Both thinkers believe that dreams can reveal hidden aspects of oneself and the interpretation of these dreams can lead to greater self-knowledge and understanding. At the same time, the differences between their perspectives reflect broader trends in the history of psychology and religious studies that highlight different approaches to understanding human experience and consciousness. Ibn Arabi's point of view is rooted in a mystical cosmology that emphasizes the importance of self-transcendence and achieving unity with the world of meaning and the unseen. Eric Fromm's view, on the contrary, is rooted in humanistic psychology, which emphasizes the importance of self-actualization and personal growth. These different approaches to understanding human experience and consciousness have important implications for our understanding of ourselves and our relationship with the world. For Ibn Arabi, the soul is ultimately the manifestation of God and the goal of human life is to achieve union with God through spiritual practices such as meditation and thinking. According to Eric Fromm, the self is a unique being that has the possibility of growth and self-fulfillment through the realization of its unique potential. As a result, by exploring these different perspectives, we can gain a deeper understanding of the complexity and richness of human experience and better understand how we can achieve greater self-knowledge and personal growth and use this knowledge to make positive changes in our lives.
Ardalan Zamani; Mohammad MohammadRezaei
Volume 11, Issue 2 , December 2023, Pages 83-102
Abstract
The oneness of being is the most central idea of Ibn Arabi, and as interpreted by his commentators and followers, the oneness of being does not mean that the Real or true existence is united with others or is a single whole. The oneness of being means that only one entity has true existence and nothing ...
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The oneness of being is the most central idea of Ibn Arabi, and as interpreted by his commentators and followers, the oneness of being does not mean that the Real or true existence is united with others or is a single whole. The oneness of being means that only one entity has true existence and nothing else; therefore, the oneness of being gives the meaning of oneness and uniqueness; for this, many consider it the best interpretation of Towhid or pure monotheism. After this, the question that comes to mind first and foremost is what are others? What are these things that we name the world? The purpose of this research is to examine this question. What position should be taken in the existential structure of Ibn Arabi about the existence of the world?
This research discusses the oneness of being by focusing on the existence and imaginary world. In the discussion of existence, we refer to common views about the oneness of being. Ibn Arabi has contradictory interpretations about the existence of the world. He has said both that they exist and do not exist. According to this research, this is a contradictory proposition; because there is no intermediary between existence and non-existence. In the following, we refer to the imaginary world and two different interpretations of it, imagination means one presence of five divine presences, and imagination means everything other than real existence, which according to Ibn Arabi is an imaginary existence. Therefore, what we are looking for to investigate its existence or non-existence is sometimes called imagination in Ibn Arabi's mysticism and the term Alam has also been coined for it. For this, in order to make the matter more clear, more focus has been placed on what is imaginary existence.
In looking for an appropriate answer to the main question of research it is argued that 1. It cannot be said that the world is pure illusion and does not exist. 2. It is not possible to both accept and reject the existence of the world. 3. It is not possible to solve the problem by rejecting the law of non-contradiction. 4. In Ibn Arabi's mysticism, the Gradation of Being is not accepted. 5. Therefore, the world exists and enjoys true existence. A great amount of this research is focused on explaining the existence of the world if we have no other way than accepting the existence of the world. Seeing things as imaginary existence and acceptance of otherness, from the point of view of this research, is caused by the subject's epistemological field. In fact, if we are talking about the epistemological subject, then the state of existence of the world will correspond to the epistemic state of the subject. With this expression, the perception of something other than the Real is an inability to perceive pure existence. Therefore, the term Alam in Ibn Arabi's mysticism, which means other than the Real, is a term that was established for our imaginary perception of existence. But the world itself, in the sense of what it is, has true existence.
So, it is not correct to say that Ibn Arabi emphasizes otherness as much as he emphasizes oneness. Also, it is not correct to accept that the world both exists and does not exist in a contradictory way. We must distinguish between external reality and knowledge of it. One of the roots of the aforementioned contradiction is ignorance of the difference between the world meaning what is other than Real and the world meaning what is. Therefore, the structure of mystical existence, i.e. various presences and worlds, is nothing but the epistemological structure of man and the layers of knowledge that are revealed to him. It cannot be overlooked that when we use the expression of things as they are and argue that they enjoy true existence, this is an expression due to our inability, which indicates otherness. The only truth is that there is one and there is nothing but him.
Tahereh Baghestani; Hadi Vakili; N poormohammadi; Hosein Moosavi
Volume 11, Issue 2 , December 2023, Pages 103-138
Abstract
The issue of the occurrence of evil in the system of creation is one of the issues that have always focused the minds of the thinkers of the world. The number of works that have appeared on this issue forms a long list. The contribution of theologians, scholars of religion, and philosophers of religion ...
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The issue of the occurrence of evil in the system of creation is one of the issues that have always focused the minds of the thinkers of the world. The number of works that have appeared on this issue forms a long list. The contribution of theologians, scholars of religion, and philosophers of religion in this regard is significant, but the scope of long-term debates and conflicts in this regard is not limited to the scope of academic studies and researches, and has also been extended to the level of the general public, and inevitably sometimes they are divided into two groups of deniers of divine justice and Believers have divided it. The existence of evil, natural and unnatural ailments and shortcomings in the world, especially from this point of view, has attracted the opinion of theologians and philosophers of religion, which is not compatible with God's absolute knowledge, absolute power, and absolute goodness. According to them, solving this inconsistency is the main task of the researchers of the problem of evil. On the one hand, they seek to protect the theological propositions based on God's omniscience, omnipotence, and pure goodness, and on the other hand, they must explain the occurrence of this evil in the divine system in such a way as to be compatible with these theological propositions. Since these doubts are related to the most fundamental principle of divine religions, i.e. the proof or denial of God and the compatibility of divine attributes, the discussion and exchange of opinions by opponents and supporters has turned into a scene of long-lasting confrontations between them. As we will see, in the contemporary philosophy of religion, there have been various discourses on the issue of evil, among which three logical, relative and existential discourses are particularly famous. Philosophers of religion have responded to these three speeches in the form of defense, theodicy, and consolation-meaning, respectively. Although this issue has a long theological and philosophical history, this issue has not prevented the mystics from expressing their opinions and positions on this issue. The supreme example in this valley is Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi, a representative of theoretical mysticism and the founder of the Akbari school, who, from his special mystical perspective, discussed the problem of evil, and to explain the problem of evil and answer the doubts arising from it, from various mystical foundations such as Nizam God's names and attributes, the best system, stable nobles, and personal unity have benefited. In the field of mysticism, articles have been written that are close to this topic, which are remarkable not in terms of complete compliance with the topic, but in terms of the similarity and scope of the topic, and can be effective in a wider understanding of the issue. Among them, Javadinia, Mazaher, 2015, "Evil and how to find its way in Ahsan's system in the school of Ibn Arabi", Philosophy of Religion, second year, vol. 4, which examines and explains evil and how to find its way in Ahsan's system in Ibn Arabi's school based on symbols God's glory and the good names of God, especially the name of the Most Merciful, the principle of personal unity of existence and the principle of manifestation. Of course, in this work, new views have not been considered. Also, Sepahi, Mojtabi, 2014, "Judgment and destiny and its connection with eternal beings from Ibn Arabi's point of view", New religious thought, year 11, number 41, which aims to explain and analyze destiny and destiny with eternal beings and their relationship with personal unity of existence. And although he addressed Ibn Arabi, there is no mention of new views on the issue. Also, Amini, Hassan, 1387, "Good and evil in the school of Ibn Arabi", Maarif al-Aqli, Vol. 12, has investigated and explained the problem of good and evil in Ibn Arabi's view in terms of the personal unity of existence and the good system and in terms of determination. Ibn Arabi has specified and pointed out the problem of evil in various places of his many works, but especially in four places in the book Fass al-Hakm, namely in Fass Yusuf, Fass Zakariyavi, Fass Yunsi, and Fass Ayyubi, and several positions from the conquests of the Makkiyyah to discuss the ills. He has paid evil and harm. In this article, we will first present his claims and arguments about the problem of evil in two books, Fosus al-Hikam and Fatuhat al-Makiyya, and then we will extract the defenses and theodicies that can be attributed to him from these works. A look at Ibn Arabi's works shows that in terms of the personal unity of existence and the system of goodness, he considered evil to be absolutely excluded in the system of existence for the purposes of the simple deprivation of education; But from the point of view of determination, he considers non-existent matters to be inherently evil and in existential matters, he has accepted a kind of relative evil in the creation system and a kind of inherent evil in the legislation system. Also, based on his views on good and evil, God's providence and will, his knowledge is subordinate to his knowledge, and his knowledge is subject to the known, and his known is the fixed nobles and their conditions. Whatever God bestows on things, it is based on the requirements of their fixed virtues. Therefore, good and evil both return to the fixed principles of things, and since the fixed principles are immovable, therefore, God has absolute authority. Also, Ibn Arabi from defenses such as the illusory nature of evil, the absence of evil and the relativity of evil, and from theodicies such as theodicy of compensation, theodicy of free will, theodicy of the best possible world, theodicy of the cultivation of the soul, and theodicy of purity, theodicy of the process, theodicy of the cross, etc. The justification of the problem of evil seeks benefit. It seems that such efforts are highly successful. As we have seen, the capacity of Ibn Arabi's works is so significant that one can make defenses such as the illusory nature of evil, the absence of evil and the relativity of evil, and theodicies such as theodicy of compensation, theodicy of free will, theodicy of the best possible world, theodicy of soul cultivation, and theodicy of purity, theodicy of process, theodicy of crucifixion and He attributed others to him. It seems that conducting similar research on other Muslim mystics as well as other relevant sources in Islamic philosophy and theology can bring important achievements in today's explanation of the views of Muslim thinkers on the issue of evil.
Amir Mohammad Emami; Abdolrasoul Kashfi
Volume 11, Issue 2 , December 2023, Pages 139-168
Abstract
The problem of evil and its relation to theism is a significant philosophical issue that has been discussed from ancient times to the contemporary period. Bruce Reichenbach is one of the contemporary philosophers of religion who has studied the issue in its various aspects. He explores different accounts ...
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The problem of evil and its relation to theism is a significant philosophical issue that has been discussed from ancient times to the contemporary period. Bruce Reichenbach is one of the contemporary philosophers of religion who has studied the issue in its various aspects. He explores different accounts of the argument from the logical or deductive argument from evil to the evidential or probabilistic accounts. In response to the probabilistic argument from evil, he develops a theodicy of moral evils and a theodicy of natural evils. According to this theodicy of natural evils, called “Natural Laws Theodicy,” natural evils are necessary by-products of the operation of natural laws in the world. Reichenbach sees natural laws as necessary conditions of human freedom and moral agency, which are considered essential to account for moral evils in the world. The supposition used here is the superiority of worlds consisting of moral agents who act freely and produce a significant amount of moral good. In this way, Reichenbach’s theodicy of natural evils is based on his theodicy of moral evils. However, this theodicy faces a number of potential objections, which Reichenbach mentions as well. The severest challenge arises from the conceivability of worlds without natural evils or containing fewer natural evils in comparison with the current world. It might be argued that law-governed worlds that do not contain evils or contain fewer evils compared to the actual world are conceivable, and since conceivability entails possibility, such worlds are possible. Consequently, the Natural Laws Theodicy fails to explain the necessity of the natural evils in the actual world to achieve a greater good; namely, the possibility of moral agency and human freedom. While Reichenbach addresses this issue in brief, the aim of this paper is to explore the problem in more depth with due consideration to broader epistemic and metaphysical frameworks in contemporary philosophy. In this regard, David Chalmers’ view on conceivability and possibility is taken into account to assess the validity of the potential objection to the Natural Laws Theodicy and also Reichenbach’s response to it. Chalmers carefully explores various types of conceivability and their relation to different kinds of possibility in his criticism of materialism, which he does by arguing for dualism in the form of an argument from conceivability. In brief, he argues that conceivability comes in a variety of forms, including positive/negative, prima facie/ideal, and primary/secondary conceivabilities. From the combination of these types, there are totally more than eight types of conceivability in Chalmers’ view. Nevertheless, he believes that only specific types of conceivability entail the metaphysical possibility that is required for arguments about the ontological nature of the mind, for instance. In this research, Reichenbach’s theodicy is developed and his answer to the potential objection of the conceivability of worlds without evil, or worlds containing fewer evils compared to the actual world, is evaluated using Chalmers’ theory on the conditions of conceivability-possibility entailment. From the various types of conceivability that Chalmers identifies, it will be explored that the law-governed worlds without natural evils or worlds containing fewer evils compared to the actual world are in what sense if any, conceivable. In the next step, based on Chalmers’ accounts of conceivability-possibility entailment, it will be concluded if the possibility of such worlds could be validly deduced from their conceivability. Moreover, Reichenbach’s objections to the argument from the conceivability of law-governed worlds without natural evil will be assessed in accordance with Chalmers’ theory on the relation of conceivability to possibility. As the outcome, it will be demonstrated that some of Reichenbach’s solutions are not entirely plausible and do not succeed in defeating the argument as they do not meet the standards set by Chalmers. Nevertheless, some of his other objections could be developed using the same framework to defeat the argument but in a weaker sense. Consequently, Bruce Reichenbach’s Theodicy of Natural Laws could be partially defended against the challenge of the conceivability of law-governed worlds without natural evils by the conditions of conceivability-possibility entailment set by David Chalmers. This research sets the ground for further research on this theodicy and similar ones that in one way or another relate to the issue of arguing from conceivability to possibility. It opens up the opportunity to take into account theories developed by Chalmers as well as other contemporary philosophers and metaphysicians who have explored different dimensions of the subject to give the investigations regarding the problem of evil and other issues in philosophy of religion more depth and precision.
Mohammad Mahdi Fallah; Ali Asghar Mosleh
Volume 11, Issue 2 , December 2023, Pages 169-202
Abstract
Introduction
The etymology of nihilism suggests that all its various meanings invariably refer to "Nothingness," thereby different conceptions of "Nothingness" can shape our encounter with nihilism. Within al-Ḥekmat al-Muta’āliyah, notions of "Nothingness" (‘Adam) are proposed to contribute ...
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Introduction
The etymology of nihilism suggests that all its various meanings invariably refer to "Nothingness," thereby different conceptions of "Nothingness" can shape our encounter with nihilism. Within al-Ḥekmat al-Muta’āliyah, notions of "Nothingness" (‘Adam) are proposed to contribute to existing literature and offer pathways for engaging with nihilism. Thus, this article probes whether the conceptual framework of al-Ḥekmat al-Mutaʿāliyah can indeed yield possibilites for confronting nihilism. The claim put forth here is that despite the extensive scrutiny al-Ḥekmat al-Muta’āliyah has undergone, there are no implicit possibility within it for articulating "Nothingness". Instead, this article argues that by highlighting certain reflections brought about by comparative philosophers, al-Ḥekmat al-Muta’āliyah might offer interpretative possibilities in facing nihilism.
Theoretical Basis
Before Heidegger, nihilism was predominantly seen as a historical quandary. While Nietzsche touched on a philosophical confrontation with nihilism, his focus on "European Nihilism" somewhat limited the scope of his analysis geographically. However, with Heidegger, the notion of "Nothingness" in connection to the question of Being was deemed necessary for encountering nihilism. He asserted that varied conceptions of Nothingness could lead to a Verwindung of nihilism, rather than a Überwindung, which he deemed neither feasible nor desirable. Heidegger noted resemblances between his reflections and those emerging in Eastern Asia. This article explores this relationship with al-Ḥekmat al-Mutaʿāliyah and examines the potential it holds for encountering nihilism.
Results
This article demonstrates that al-Ḥekmat al-Mutaʿāliyah addresses 'Adam through at least four categories: (1) the conception of 'Adam; (2) Hylomorphism (Hayolāye Āvvalī); (3) motion and stillness (Ḥarekat wa Sukun); and (4) "aggregated nothingness" (‘Adam Mojāme‘). The prevailing view among members of al-Ḥekmat al-Muta’āliyah is that Nothingness is contingent upon Being and can only be understood within the context of Being. Consequently, Nothingness is neither a tangible entity nor a phenomenon that can manifest in reality; thus, it cannot possess any attributes, with some even arguing it is inconceivable. As a result, all conceptions of Nothingness within al-Ḥekmat al-Muta’āliyah are metonymical, and a true discourse on Nothingness remains elusive. Despite this, the issue, configured as the paradox of absolute nothingness, has elicited responses within al-Ḥekmat al-Muta’āliyah, yet none of these responses adequately address the challenge of encountering nihilism. Nonetheless, some comparative philosophers, such as Henry Corbin and Toshihiko Izutsu, have underscored concepts within al-Ḥekmat al-Muta’āliyah that aid in grasping Nothingness, such as "Non-Conditional as the Source of Division" (lā-be-Šarṭ Maqsamī), which Izutsu likened to the "no (no not-being)" of Zhuangzi and identified with the concept of "Nothingness" in Eastern wisdom. This notion has been further expounded upon in the works of Dāryush Šāyegan and Qāsem Kākāī. Consequently, akin to how Nishitani Keiji considered "Śūnyatā" a tool for engaging with nihilism, it can be posited that lā-be-Šarṭ Maqsamī is the contribution al-Ḥekmat al-Mutaʿāliyah makes to the existing discourse.
Conclusions
In conclusion, al-Ḥekmat al-Mutaʿāliyah can partially contribute to the confrontation with nihilism and offer possibilities for a Verwindung. These potentials are attained by a critical examination of al-Ḥekmat al-Mutaʿāliyah, along with a recognition of its boundaries, while augmenting it with insights gleaned from comparative studies within the discipline. The concept of lā-be-Šarṭ Maqsamī can be interpreted in this context, suggesting that absolute nothingness might be conceived as a plenitude akin to absolute being, rather than solely as void. Through this approach, avenues can open up to confront nihilism in al-Ḥekmat al-Mutaʿāliyah.
Amir Rastin Toroghi; Vahideh Fakhar Noghani
Volume 11, Issue 2 , December 2023
Abstract
The epistemology of prayer in theology mostly relates to considering the possibility of belief in the prayer being answered. Some philosophers of religion such as Davison hold that we cannot know whether God has answered particular prayers, because various reasons other than our petitionary prayers may ...
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The epistemology of prayer in theology mostly relates to considering the possibility of belief in the prayer being answered. Some philosophers of religion such as Davison hold that we cannot know whether God has answered particular prayers, because various reasons other than our petitionary prayers may be effective in the obtaining of the state of affairs in question. In addition, the fact that we cannot know God's reasons for the realization of the desired outcome makes the possibility of reaching this certainty weaker. On the other hand, some theologians like Choi think that it is possible to reach this certainty according to the evidences coincident with the occurrence of the state of affairs in question. Through the comparative study of Davison's and Choi's views and the analysis of their arguments, this article tries to introduce the kind of certainty required in the theology of prayer. Some religious evidences and proofs acting as an epistemic guarantee of the divine answer to the human prayer along with reasoning through the best explanation according to the available evidence can strengthen the hypothesis that God answers some petitions.
................ ...............; N poormohammadi; ................. ................
Volume 11, Issue 2 , December 2023
Abstract
Cognitive science of religion (CSR) is a new field of cognitive science that was established in the 1990s when a group of cognitive science researchers focused on projects about religion. The three fundamental questions of this field in the most general state are: 1. How are religious ideas represented ...
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Cognitive science of religion (CSR) is a new field of cognitive science that was established in the 1990s when a group of cognitive science researchers focused on projects about religion. The three fundamental questions of this field in the most general state are: 1. How are religious ideas represented in our brain? 2. How are religious ideas acquired? And 3. Which practices institutionalize these ideas? Most scientists of the cognitive sciences of religion considered religious beliefs and behaviors to be a by-product of the cognitive powers of the human mind. "Cognitive neuroscience of religion", as a sub-branch of cognitive science of religion, seeks to identify the neural correlates of religious beliefs, emotions, actions and experiences with brain imaging methods. In this article, in the first step, we introduce the "two main approaches in the cognitive neuroscience of religion", which include the "inefficient brain activity" approach and the "normal output of the brain nervous system" approach. In the second stage, we will discuss "various models of explaining religious experience" in cognitive neuroscience. These models include "God's halmet", "altered states of consciousness", "neuro-physiological relaxation response", "neurocognitive-cultural process", "recruitment of all brain regions", "social cognition region of the brain" and "combination of hierarchical predictive coding model"(HPC) and complexity drop model of supernaturality (CDMS). In the third stage, we show that the introduction of cognitive neuroscience to the explanation of religious experience faces limitations and challenges that need to be resolved. These four challenges are: "conceptual diversity and complexity", "particularity of mental matter", "semantic challenge", and "ontological challenge".
